UK Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreak
- 23rd September: A suspected new case of foot-and-mouth is being investigated on the Hampshire-West Sussex border. Bluetongue is confirmed on a farm in Suffolk.
- 21st September: Another case of foot-and-mouth disease was confirmed on a farm in the Egham area of Surrey. Around 40 cattle were culled on the premises, which are within the existing 3km protection zone.
- 18th September: Defra confirms fifth infected premises since the start of the outbreak.
- 14th September: Defra announces that a second farm in Surrey is affected, imposes new protection and surveillance zone and confirms that sequencing tests of the virus have shown it to be type 01 BFS67, the same strain of virus responsible for the August outbreak.
- 12th September: Defra confirms a new case of FMD in Surrey.
- 8th September: The last restrictions imposed on livestock movement in the UK following the foot-and-mouth disease outbreak were lifted, but the earliest the UK can achieve international foot-and-mouth disease-free status is 7th November.
- August 2007: On 3rd August Defra confirmed an outbreak of foot and mouth disease on a farm near Guildford in Surrey. Defra confirmed that the FMDV strain found in Surrey is most similar to strains used in international diagnostic laboratories and in vaccine production, including at the Pirbright site shared by the Institute of Animal Health (IAH) and Merial Animal Health Ltd, a pharmaceutical company. The present indications are that this strain is an O1 BFS67-like virus, isolated in the 1967 Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak in Great Britain. This strain is present at the IAH and was used in a batch manufactured in July 2007 by the Merial facility. On a precautionary basis Merial has agreed to voluntarily halt vaccine production. Defra confirms a second case of foot and mouth on a farm within the 3km protection zone. Between 50 and 100 cows on the affected farm have been culled. As expected, the Health and Safety Executive’s initial report concludes that “there is a strong probability that the FMDV strain involved in the farm outbreak originated from the IAH or the Merial sites”. The letter to the Minister says “There is no reason to prevent the Institute for Animal Health from operating providing that all the usual biosecurity protocols are followed rigorously” but that “The situation regarding Merial is less clear cut, and I would advise that further work be done before any operations involving live pathogens are restarted. As the report indicates there are doubts about the integrity of the drainage system, including pipe work which leads to the final effluent treatment plant”. The report also says “Release by human movement must also be considered a real possibility. Further investigation of the above issues is required and is being urgently pursued”. Chief veterinary officer Debby Reynolds told a news conference she had ordered livestock on a third farm in Surrey to be culled on suspicion the disease may have spread.
Defra: Interactive map
10 Facts About Foot and Mouth Disease:
- Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly infectious disease of hoofed animals (ungulates) such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. It can also infect elephants, rats, and hedgehogs.
- The symptoms of FMD are fever followed by the development of vesicles (blisters) chiefly in the mouth and on the feet.
- Affected animals suffer weight loss from which they do not recover for several months, and in cows milk production can decline significantly. Although most animals eventually recover from FMD the disease can be fatal, especially in newborn animals.
- Foot and mouth disease is caused by a Picornavirus.
- FMD has an incubation period of 2-14 days before symptoms appear. The virus can survive in dry faecal material for 14 days in summer, in slurry for six months in winter, in urine for 39 days and on the soil for up to 28 days.
- Some infected animals remain asymptomatic carriers of FMD which can transmit the disease to other animals.
- The last major outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the UK in 2001 led to the slaughter of between 6.5 to 10 million animals and is estimated to have cost the country up to £8.5 billion.
- The United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, Indonesia and Korea are currently free of FMD, but the disease is present in Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and South America.
- Vaccination against FMD is difficult because there are seven serotypes of the virus and a vaccine for one serotype does not protect against any others. Vaccination only provides temporary immunity. Defra Decision Tree for Disease Control Strategies against FMD
- Humans can be infected with foot-and-mouth disease through close contact with infected animals, but this is extremely rare and human infections are not fatal. Because the virus that causes FMD is sensitive to stomach acid, it cannot spread to humans via consumption of infected meat or milk.
Tags: Africa, Asia, cattle, cows, culled, Defra, Eastern Europe, FMDV, foot and mouth disease, goats, Health, humans, immunity, infectious disease, Institute of Animal Health, meat, Merial Animal Health Ltd, milk, Picornavirus, pigs, Pirbright, serotype, sheep, South America, Surrey, UK, vaccine, virus
This reads like an NFU briefing. FMD is rarely fatal. Animals can be nursed back to health. Antibiotics can be prescribed to treat secondary infections. Most animals slaughtered in 2001 were healthy. The FMD slaughter policy is to protect the economic interests of beef farmers especially as Japan will not accept vaccinated meat. There is no risk to human health from FMD or vaccinated meat. Vaccination against FMD is straightforward and can be done by paraveterinary personnel. Vaccinated animals should not subsequently be killed. The ‘stamping out’ policy supported by the misleading 10-point program posted above is one that ignores all advances in immumology since 1929.
Please can you source these “10 facts” ?
The information in this article is taken from a wide variety of sources which can be found by following the links in the article.
Seems pretty tendentious to me… and very unbalanced and quite out of step with what professional agricultural veterinarians point out, not least that this is NOT a disease that is normally fatal nor even necessarily serious. It is an “economic” disease for the most part. The points you make and what you exclude make your so-called facts pretty unbalanced.
I see that actually 3 of 10 of your claimed facts are sourced. Just to be precise.
I note further that you claimed ‘fact’number 9 is sourced with reference to a Defra web page that makes no statement similar to your own that vaccination is difficult. So this ‘fact sheet’ of your is falling apart, rather…
Jonathan:
I would agree that no. 9 isn’t compelling: we should have stocks of vaccine against whatever serotype is involved in the outbreak; and there is a reasonable chance that targeted vaccination will be used in the outbreak. Nationwide vaccination is a bad idea because it would make testing for exposure, and thus confirmation of eradication, a complete nightmare (a test for antibodies against FMD would come back positive in any animal protected by vaccination). It would probably be impracticable, anyway. Other than that, can’t really see any problems with the list at all.
And I can’t see anyone arguing that the main impact of FMD is anything other than economic (though in cattle and pigs, it can be quite nasty). The alternative to eradication (whether or not targeted vaccination is part of the policy is irrelevant), is to allow the disease to become endemic in the UK. The impact of this on British livestock farming would be pretty much catastrophic: aside from the losses in yield, we would essentially lose our international markets: in 2006, total UK farming net income was £2.7bn (Defra), with under half of this from livestock (excluding chickens), while meat and animal feed exports totalled ~£1bn in 2005 (latest year for which figures are available). These exports are overwhelmingly to countries who will not accept imports from areas suffering FMD outbreaks (principally the EU, also Canada, USA).
I don’t like to see animals slaughtered unnecessarily, but the contrast between the Scottish and Cumbrian outbreaks in 2001 demonstrates that rapid and decisive, perhaps even draconian, action leads to a much reduced long-term impact (and fewer animals slaughtered overall, as a result).
Btw, my background on this is as an immunologist whose parents were farmers (and lost their sheep in 2001, being within a few km of the South-West Scotland outbreak).
Jonathan, is it not the case that animals which recover from FMD weigh less and in the case of cattle, yield less milk?
ajcann, thanks for this post. It was interesting.
Normally animals that are sick with a virus can be expected to lose condition…. and on recovery, can regain weight and condition.
[...] UK Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreak [image] [...]
“Normally animals that are sick with a virus can be expected to lose condition…. and on recovery, can regain weight and condition”
Can, or do?
Can and do. There are rare cases of animals dying and suffering but normally this disease runs a fairly benign course. The point remains that the hysteria about FMD relates to trade rules. The grotesque methods used to control this disease are intended to protect certain commercial farmers. The cost of this protection far exceeds the value of the trade being protected. Hence, in 2001, the country suffered (I estimate) £20 billion of damage & costs to protect meat exports worth perhaps £250million.
[...] Comments Jonathan Miller on UK Foot and Mouth Disease OutbreakDVH on UK Foot and Mouth Disease OutbreakTop Posts « WordPress.com on UK Foot and Mouth [...]
I am a shrimp aquaculturist for dealing shrimp virus for 20 years. The shrimp’s health management and paradigm basically have copied from terrestrial vertebrates which have never shown effective in this invertebrate species-shrimp.
The live stock health management has copied from the methodology adopted for human beings with phobia and panic towards viral diseases.
The latest findings in viral meta-genomics and evolutionary genetics have provided the reflections on that the vaccination and breeding strategy in husbandry are perilous in dealing with viral diseases in general.
The stakeholders of the future farming industry need new perspectives in science education and public administration.
Do we need to take a generation or a decade to amend the mistaken paradigm? The pain caused by igorance will instruct.
Please could you explain what you mean by “the vaccination and breeding strategy in husbandry are perilous in dealing with viral diseases in general”?
Hi,
I can list the example that is familiar to me first, but the modern husbandry is very similar. Shrimp,for instance, in the hatchery production, the survival rate determines the profit. So the efforts are directing to nurture the direction of high survival rate by eliminating the challenges, using the modern disinfections to eliminate all pathogens. The powerful sterilization kills all germs good and bad. The survived larva are protected in artificial environments as much as possible until a date to release to the open farms. The farms are open to airborne vectors and water borne ones. The bird is carrier, its dropping from the sky can contaminate the farm. In reality, there is no bio-security in farm. Perhaps only quasi state.
So, the point that I would like to highlight is the existing production protocol basically producing naive animals demand constant artificial immunization, etc. For generations without complete natural selection, the gene in the controlled population is evolving towards unfavorable status in immunity development. I believe that evolutionary genetics nowaday could state this peril with evidences.
My basic theme is the husbandry practices have ignored the law of natural selections. The entropy of immunity has drained because the wrong paradigm from wrong science education in veterinary bureaucracy world wide.
The new stakeholders composed of consumers, producers, educators need to sit down and set new code of conduct which is different from human medecine. Veterinary education should place more focus in basic biology, mathematical biology, meta-genomics, evolution, and unlearn the inheritances from human medicine.
So, what is a proper breeding strategy presumptively?
The hatchery has to set a threshold to eliminate the weak gene by ” natural selection” process. This selective baby will survive much better in the farm. The breeding stratgy is to push the entropy of immunity back, not let it down for the sake of other benefits- growth, survival rate for economic gain. The ultimate gain in farms will pay the effort of this selection strategy. God, 38.5 billion in 2001′s loss was a living example.
It may take 10 years to rectify by a new leverage. I am doing the shrimp in Asia by this new concept and gain very positve result. I wish the livestock industry can look at this concept. I personally assume that bird flu is relating to poultry practice.
By the way, I would like to remind people that from viral metagenomics research. More than 90% virus in the environment have not been identified. Virus is the regulator of bacteria. Do not look the dark side of virus, they were indeed the contributors of DNA for human beings.
This isn’t an argument against vaccination, it is an argument against poor husbandry practices in aquaculture such as overstocking, monoculture, loss of biodiversity, pollution, etc.
Three points for comments:
1. I have strong doubts about the vaccination for livestock’s health management. On long term, it would create more problems than solutions. For human beings, the life span averaged 70 years, living in controlled shelter for life. Vaccination is specifically effective, but not for all. Livestock’s life cycle is ranged from 1-5 years; the population measured by biomass is much more than human. The shift of gene in population is significantly different between these two categories. The reliances on vaccination forever is dead end. We need evolutionary geneticist to advise this point.
2. The outbreak of viral diseases in cow (FMDV) and chicken ( Bird Flu) have signaled naive immunity of farmed animals which grow ever vulnerable to virus challenges indicate the perils in the husbandry industry itself. They are monoculture, loss of biodiversity as well as per your points to aquaculture. My concept is that the selective breeding strategy on diseases resistant- more correctly immunity developed and selected enough for natural selection, should be the leverage.
3. The solution when facing viral disease in terrestrial vertebrates is containment and slaughter, not much study in disease resistant. While shrimp in WSSV (White Spot Virus Syndrome Virus) has accumulated more than 15 years intensive study with trillions samples is the best reference to review.
It is the time for the industry to reflect this challenge again. With new perspectives, perhaps from other field-aquaculture’s lession.
Your ‘strong doubts’ do not impress me much. Please produce data from studies conducted where animals are routinely vaccinated. Poor husbandry is I agree a bad thing. But not an argument for culling. Your point 3 is dogma and your point about shrimp virtually laughable.
I am amazed sometimes as how anti-scientific scientists can be!
Jonathan,
You miss the point that I stress on the importance of selective breeding strategy directed at disease resistant over other measures such as vaccination.
It is extremely difficult for the industry to accept an innovative breeding program which may take several years to tune this direction.
I am not against the treatment of culling, I am sorry if I have made this misunderstanding. I only imply that the cumulative experiences in breeding resistant line is lacking.
As I say it is a lession, which was “many mistakes”. Sometimes, the cause and consequence are not happening at the same time. I hope that after you laugh, your assertiveness decrease.
I’m not understanding this fellow. Is he saying that he believes farmed animals should be left open to disease and this will eventually result in nothing but disease-resistant animals?
I reckon he is saying that if you stop breeding for high output (of juveniles or eggs) using high artificial inputs (antibiotics, contained environments, vaccination etc) you will end up with two things:
A) a tougher gene pool of your commercial organism more capable of adapting to their rearing environments without succumbing to normal, unavoidable or acceptable environmental pollutants or infectious agents, and
B) a cheaper end-product. Cheaper at breeding and rearing stages and on overall disease prophylaxis and remediation grounds for producer and nations.
The other obvious benefits such as reducing environmental pollution from stock management chemicals and biologically active additives are equally positive. As a resident of a country currently in the throes of haphazard piecemeal deregulation of imports (including uncooked prawns often used as bait) despite the success of a historically stricter than many import control and inspection regime, I find his approach holds a promise of improvement in global agricultural practice rather than the usual constant degradation.
Ian’s two points serve as the perfect addendum of my highlight of postings in this group. Thanks.
I stay in Phuket where the neighboring countries have reported the outbreaks of bird flu every year. The case of poultry farms, one farm has produced 10 millions birds a cycle ( a year)quite normal now. I have grave concern about the industry practice for breeding the fertilized eggs. Are the population cultured naive to vectors from airborne carried by wild birds? If killing all the wild birds is not a solution, what are the alternatives?
BGG’s question on how to select the resistant ones, I can not answer it. I just pinpoint that well protected breeding program and then release to open farm ( less protected)is a wrong methodology. This is a problem of macro-scaled one.
hello…i was under the impression that this disease was/is called…. hoof and mouth…. because it isa disease of hooved animals?…is this somehow different? is this a disease anyone can get…a new strain?….please enlighten me….thank you
Ajcann,
Do you know where to find the historical record of UK FMD outbreaks for the last 50 years? How possible is the transmmion by airborne? From the record of this website, it says that virus survives in winter for up to six months, in soil for 28 days.
We know FMD affects hoofed animals, is there any research on the possible vectors as carriers in dormancy of FMDV?
Lauren: hoof and mouth is just another name for the same disease (tends to be used more in North America).
Paiwan: Thre have been 3 outbreaks in the UK in the lsat 50 years: 1967, 2001, 2007 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot-and-mouth_disease#Outbreaks).
Lauren: The record of people died of hoofed and mouth disease was in England in 1800(?). The dairy workers drank raw milk from infected cow. What we can say now is: the threat for human being’s life is not a major concern. You concern about possible new strains is a topic of scientific research ones. I can list two areas:
1. Rat is FMD virus carrier. Rat and human are 97 % similar in genome. 3% differences make a lot difference in traits from appearances, not kidding! Virus is famous for mutation; it jumps very quickly and good at exchanging gene. So, your point deserves to be watchful. Who knows the mutation will not happen to have new strain that can affect people in the future.
AJC: Please can you cite a source for rats being FMD carriers.
2. Chicken is more distant in gene structure than rat to human, though in 1918, the flu’s virus could jump from chicken to chicken and to human, and the worse is human to human. This so-called Spanish Flu had caused more than 10 millions died of this flu in less than a year. The current outbreaks of bird flu, its virus can jump from bird to chicken, chicken to chicken, and chicken to human ( had record of people died and sick). Luckily, the virus can not transmit from human to human.
Again, the solution that the global focus is placing is to research and manufacture enough vaccine. I do not like to underestimate this effort. I just think of alternative backup strategy!
Ajcann: I can not find much 1967 the UK FMD outbreak information. Please correct me if I am wrong.
1. The 1967 virus’s strain is the one that is used for vaccine manufacture in England now. I suppose that this virus is a local strain supposedly has existed in England for hundred or thousand years.
2. The 2007 outbreak identifies the virus is relating to this strain in 1967.
3. The 2001 outbreak, the virus is so-called Pan Asian strain; the earliest outbreak happened in India in 1990, 1994 in Saudi Arabia, it happened in the UK in 2001. The major outbreak started from a pig farm which pigs got infections by eating contaminated stuff.
AJC: Please read: Foot and Mouth Disease
My questions here are:
How possible the airbrone transmission in FMD now and the comparion with before?
1. The speed of spreading FMD most serious is thru airborne, of course the probability of susceptive is thru eating and contacting directly. In term of speed, when the viral load reach to an amount in the air. The contagion thru airborne is the quickest. Is that correct?
2. Suppose the investigations on the two vaccine related unit finally have shown no connection for the direct contact by eating or discharged pollutants whichever. Even that, is it possible that only airborne contamination under past legitimate level now can become a source of susceptive
Ian: You mention about raw shrimp importation to your country. I would like to supply the remarks below, if you need more discussion, can send email to me: paiwan46@yahoo.com. I am afraid of people fed-up my shrimp talk in this blog.
1. Shrimp viruses exist plenty in the wild, the ocean. The wild brood-stock (mother shrimp) has carrier mostly. WSSV in Asia, GAV in Australia. Crustaceans are prone to be carriers but no sign of virulence.
2. WSSV cause mortality in shrimp farming, in 1996 the damage was US5 billions. Why in the ocean the mortality is not serious as in the farm? One is less dense population, second is that weak shrimps mostly are eaten by carnivorous fishes, shrimp has least chance to consume the sick shrimps. While in the pond, shrimp eats dead shrimp preferably, that makes the infection very serious.
In Thailand, farmers are smart enough to put sea bass in the reservoir and it has effectively reduced the WSSV damage to the farms.
3. Your concern of importing raw frozen shrimp is less important than the importation the live shrimps. Especially now some international companies claim they have SPF and fast growth. It is very dangerous.
4. The lesson from FMD is the animal movement is not strictly prohibited.
5. Local breeding program with NBC (Nuclear Breeding Center) administrated under transparency and strategy in disease resistant selection is very important. I observe that aquaculture has initiated in this area.
6. My final advice is stopping the live shrimp movement from distant country.
Paiwan, You should start your own aquaculture blog here on WordPress!
Ajcann: I enjoy your coach and learn a lot from reading your blog, when the time comes, I will consult you.
But please answer I questions first.
Ajcann: about the rat as carier, the below paper states that rats feces, urine have FMD virus.
Sutmoller et al., 2003: Sutmoller Paul, Barteling Simon S, Olascoaga Raul Casas, Sumption Keith J Control and eradication of foot-and-mouth disease. Virus Research. 2003; 91: 101 – 144. [PubMed: 12527440].
In 1946 Norfolk outbreak, 9 hedgehogs dying over 11 months, the investigation reported that they might ate kitchen scraps ontaining imported meat product.
In South america, a large rodent capybara found as carrier.
Why a shrimp culturist comes to the table of FMD?
It is because of virus primary.
There are two different hosts, viruses are different naturally. You may think that the intruder will confuse the situation and create turbulence only, therefore disdain the points he has presented to this table. Radical and laughable he is. (He was awarded a prize of “ non science” from a famous commentator, two kicks from a biological weapon expert and lost two teeth. The owner pitied him and told him “You go home to do your assignment, go slowly.”)
Does he dare to come back? Many guests of this party maybe go away? (For sure, not every one.) He chooses to come back, because this party is not for entertainment. It is rather a serious one, it is virus related.
Let this shrimp guest unfold his messages, please be receptive a bit. He may leave something valuable for this party.
The first story is salmon; nowadays the cultured salmon fills the supermarket. It is Norway has demonstrated excellent production record. This research team now has been involved with shrimp project in Columbia, South America. They have faced a big challenge, everything is OK; growth improved by genetic skills they adopted in salmon, except…, except the viral diseases. Salmon could be vaccinated one by one. Shrimp is too many and too small to inject vaccine. Moreover, shrimp’s immunity has short memory, it is different from vertebrate.
The most relevant discovery this group need to learn from Columbia program is: they’ve found that after several generations directed at growth trait, this selected shrimp is very susceptible to viral diseases. So, it is serious. No vaccine available, and this selected shrimp become more naïve and vulnerable. They die in the pond, mass mortality.
New research program now place the disease resistant as priority.
This is a true story not long ago, published in 2006.
This shrimp guest has his version, similar approach like above. If you are interested can Google: ” Save that shrimp.” Phuket Post.
He wish to share his discoveries which are important speculations for FMD solution hypothetically. Will disclose further.
Man, what an interchange! All of which leaves me, a virologist in Africa where FMDVs are endemic, rather at a loss…WHY do Europeans insist (a) on not vaccinating, (b) on not accepting meat from vaccinated animals, when it is so easy to check whether antibodies are due to immunisation or infection (hint: check for Ab to non-vaccine proteins)??
Do you all know that, during the last major UK outbreak (durng which SA and other African FMDV experts made a killing by working there), a group of Maasai from Kenya actually seriously asked for infercted UK cattle to be sent out to Africa, so that they could look after them? Because they knew that cattle infected with FMDV recovered quite well, and did not need to be culled?
This is almost exactly analogous to the US not accepting people with anti-TB Ab into the rUS as travellers – when most of the rest of the world still vaccinates against TB with BCG!!
Strange policies…in this day and age, when FMDV can travel from one side of the world to the other, via ship’s galley slops (the presumed source of both the UK and SOuth African FMDV outbreaks in recent years). VACCINATE, people, with multispecific subunit vaccines (grown in plants, to please me and to make them cheaper), and change the regs so that immunity to FMDV is not a crime…!!!
Or stop eating meat so it becomes an irrelevant disease.
Perhaps in the near future, metagenomics will provide us more relevant answers to how the viruses are regulating microbes and biological world.
All husbandries are basically interventions to the biological world. Virus is telling where our treatments are in the border or outside. Human beings need to find the leverage how to sustain the production system. FMD outbreak is the signal of yellow light that the industry is not doing right in some places. I suspect the breeding strategy of neglecting the immunity selection for the eficiency of growth and milk production has left the cow more naive, therefore less resistant to diseases than before. I agree with artificial immunization for short term plan.
We need also to review our meal plan. No, the meal without yogurt, cheese are pale!
To keep our cow more healthy, it is the time to learn much from plant resistance strategy or invertebrates like insects or shrimp? Or very soon it will turn into red light.
Why is it that Japan doesn’t accept vaccinated meat? Wouldn’t it be safer?
Margot
Japan has copied many systems from England for her modernisation, logically Japan has followed the marketing trend promoted by English livestock industry. It has been reciprocating between producers and consumers for a while, so called stakeholders formation.
In addition, Japaneses like the concept of sashimi, eating raw for freshness. The sashimi items cover beef as well. The claim of prime qaulity without vaccination is good marketing illusion, ideological but not scientific.
I’ve watched BBC ‘Have You say’ for a while and feel the sufferings of UK farmers. In a great country which ever had Charles Darwin and now have many brilliant biologists- the current paradigm in containment of virus is wrong in shrimp industry and I speculate the mistake in FMD as well, I mean on production dimension.
This blog’s marine viruses page introduce Canadian research on marine viruses, if you read Nature Review, the review speculates a possible paragigm shift of viewing viruses- this major player in global biological system. Canada has been leading researches for SARS and Avain Flu, providing cutting edge technologies. Can England lead at least one item- showing competencies in transforming this 400 years industry, providing true sustainable treatment for FMD?
The government vet officers, farmers are doing their right things. Just, this country’s biologists have mum-med too long!?
I have several a question which relating to FMD speculation, I would appreciate very much to have valuable comments:
1. From publications, I understand that artificial insemination has been adopted in livestock for a while. The semen preserved in liquid nitrogen and is easy to be dispatched. The import and export of semen is equal to introducing 50% gene from distant area. Is there any appraisal on the risk of inducing diseases, viral and bacterial infections? My question is not questioning the semen as disease carriers; I am questioning the gene from new area if it is prone to be infected more than locally bred ones which are assumed more naturally selected?
2. Furthermore, are the animals more naive under existing protocol, even very little viral load of FMD now will cause the symptom? Is there any Lab conducting the challenge test? Is it allowed anyway?
3. I understand that vaccination is effective as a short plan solution, besides it any innovative strategy is in the pipeline?
Please forgive my stupid speculation, perhaps after several decades people will laugh at our cull and containment strategy for FMD treatment that our generation is no expertise of evolutionary genetics.
Wht are the symptoms of FMD in Humanbeings??
Wht is the cost of one Vaccine in Cattle??