What is bushmeat?

The forest and woodland is often known as the bush and therefore the wild animal products derived from the bush are known as bushmeat. Bushmeat constitutes a vast array of species (as shown below) ranging from red duikers (Cephalophus spp) to panthers (Panthera pardus), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis). Vast amount of bushmeat are harvested every year and the total revenue from sales is staggering. For example Fa et al. (2002a) estimated that 5 million tonnes of bushmeat are extracted from Neotropical and Afrotropical (Congo) forests each year. Peres (2000) estimated that 89,224 million tonnes of bushmeat is consumed in the Brazilian Amazon annually and that it has a value of US$ 190.7 million.

How is bushmeat harvested?

Hunters do not hunt for specific species of bushmeat because the price of bushmeat is determined by the overall weight of bushmeat. Wilkie et al. (2001) discovered that "a highly endangered sun-tailed guenon (Cercopithecus solatus) on sale in the Libreville market in Gabon was priced the same as the much more abundant white-nosed guenon (C. cephus)". This therefore makes hunters indiscriminate killers. Bowen-Jones et al. (1999 and 2003) observed that the most prevalent species sold at market were duikers and that they made up 42-84% of the total bushmeat sold.

Table 2. above shows various hunting methods used by native hunters to kill animals from a number of taxonomic groups in central-western Tanzania (Carpento et al). Using guns was the most effective hunting strategy with 53.81% of species being harvested via this method.

Hunters have a variety of methods for the extraction of bushmeat from the wild which include trapping, snaring, netting, use of dogs and shooting (Bowen-Jones et al. 2003, Fa 2002b, Naughton-Treves et al. 2003, Wilkie et al. 2001, Zoological Society of London). Wilkie et al. (1999) discovered that hunters in the Congo-Basin carry out net hunting instead of snare hunting because up to 25% of animals caught in snares are lost too scavengers or rot. Newing et al. (2001) reported that snaring is a preferred method of hunting because it is a cheap technique. Milner-Gulland et al. (2002) also mention that nylon snares are used to catch babirusas (wild pigs).

Once the bushmeat has been harvested via a particular hunting method it is often smoked in specialised smoking camps (commercial hunters). Smoking the meat toughens it and helps prevent infestation with maggots. The smoked bushmeat or "smokies" is then sold at market. Unfortunately current harvest rates of many species in various countries are unsustainable, for example Fa et al. (2002a) estimated that 60% of mammals in the Congo are hunted unsustainably.

Why do people eat bushmeat?

An essential source of protein:
In 2002 a conference was held in Yaounda and was attended by the World Conservation Union, the United Nations, the Food and Agricultural Organisation and TRAFFIC. They defined extreme poverty as someone who earns a personal income of <US$1 a day (Davies, 2002). People from third-world countries are the group that are most likely to fit into this bracket. The Human Development Index list lists 174 of the poorest countries in the world, nearly all of the countries in the Congo-basin are ranked 130 or lower but Gabon is the exception and is ranked at 123. Davies (2002) states that 50% of people in this region are food-insecure and therefore can not afford to buy meat.

Carpento et al. (2000) and Fa et al (2002a), observed that there were a number of agricultural problems that pressurised local indigenous people into hunting for bushmeat. For example drought and poor soil combined with bad agricultural practices leads to a low crop yield. Bowen-Jones et al. (2003) found that freshwater fishing has a low yield and people would therefore increase the chance of obtaining more protein from bushmeat. Presence of the tse tse fly (Carpento et al. 2000) would mean that rearing of cattle could have a detrimental effect as the tse tse fly carries trypanosomiasis a filarial parasite that causes African sleeping sickness which could infect the farmer.

Wilkie et al. (1999 and 2001) studied how bushmeat hunting is affecting people of the Congo Basin, he found that the majority of peoples diets consisted of carbohydrates for example from cassava and that consumption of gneutum leaves does provide some amino acids but not a complete complement. Due to the above reasons local indigenous people hunt for bushmeat to either supplement their intake of protein or to for fill it completely (Fa 2002a, Wilkie et al.1999, Wilkie et al. 2001, Carpento et al. 2000, Newing et al. 2001 and De Merode et al. 2004). Bowen-Jones et al. (2003) noted that in the Dja reserve, Cameroon 98% of protein intake came from bushmeat.

A readily available source of food with commercial value:
With an increase in the populations of third-world countries, the migration of people and resettlement policies comes an increase in the demand for food and therefore bushmeat. There are two types of consumer for bushmeat; subsistence hunters, to whom bushmeat is an essential dietary requirement and rural populations whom are not in the extreme poverty bracket and therefore buy bushmeat as a luxury item or as a preference to domestic meat i.e. beef (Bowen-Jones 2003).

Hunting and selling bushmeat generates large revenue and is used by many subsistence farmers, loggers and others on low wages to supplement their income. A decrease in the world prices for peanuts, palm oil and coffee has also pushed some farmers into subsidising their income via bushmeat sales (Wilkie et al. 1998). A case study by De Merode et al. (2004) in the Congo found that normally household consumption of bushmeat consisted of 3.1% of the diet, fish composed 6.2% and wild plant consisted of 9.6% of the diet. During lean season when crop yield was low both consumption and sales of bushmeat, fish and wild plants increased. The sales of fish, wild plants and bushmeat increased 365%, 233% and 155% respectively. De Merode observed that household incomes were highest during the lean season. These statistics would lead to the elevation of extreme poverty for many individuals and families.

Table 3. above shows the estimated value of the bushmeat trade in a number of African countries (Davies 2002). Hunters generate a high income Wilkie et al. (1999) discovered that snare trappers in south-western CAR earn $400-700 and local guards in the park reserve only earn $450-650 annually. Hunting can bee seen as a lucrative industry especially to the millions in extreme poverty and global harvesting of bushmeat (as mentioned in the introduction and as shown below) is worth hundreds of millions of dollars.

Influx of large workforces with capital:
Logging and oil companies, mining, clearance of forest for agriculture and hydroelectric dams has lead to a disappearance of forest and has lead to an increase in forest frontiers therefore bringing a vast number of people into closer contact with wild animals (Peres, 2000). In these areas no large scale agricultural practices are in action and therefore there is a high demand for food hence bushmeat is harvested for consumption because it is the nearest available food source. Bowen-Jones et al. (1999) noticed that logging companies would pay local hunters to provide bushmeat for their workforce.

Logging roads provide access to new areas of jungle for hunters, the roads also provide an easy means of transport of the bushmeat to market places (Dupain et al. 2000, Bowen-Jones et al. 1999, Thibault et al. 2003, Walsh et al. 2003 and Wilkie et al.1999). Wilkie et al. (1999) discovered that loggers earned 2-3 times the national wage and could therefore afford to buy bushmeat. Bowen-Jones et al. (2003) observed the presence of numerous "chop bars" in logging areas. Chop bars are roadside cafeterias where one can buy bushmeat in a soup or stew. This shows bushmeat is readily supplied to loggers because they can afford to consume it.

It is not only the indigenous farmers who try to supplement their income by hunting many of the loggers and oil company employees do as well. Oil, gas and some logging companies are prohibited to hunt for bushmeat but Thibault et al. (2003) had noted that hunters have been seen driving oil company vehicles and buying bushmeat at Gamba markets in Gabon. The attractive, lucrative aspect of the bushmeat trade was revealed with a 67 day survey carried out by Thibault et al. (2003) during which Shell private flights to Gabon were searched and large quantities of bushmeat was discovered, which included 49kg of unidentified primate and other species included gorilla, python and blue duiker. Bushmeat trade has become so commercialised that in Liberia the bushmeat trade is now thought to be worth more than the timbre trade (Bowen-Jones et al. 2003).

Bushmeat is a cheap protein source:
Many people consume bushmeat because it is cheaper than alternative sources of protein. Walsh et al. (2003) observed that in remote villages in Congo bushmeat cost a third of the price of any of the alternative protein sources i.e. chicken, fish or beef). Wilkie et al. (1999) stated "In Bayanga CAR, beef prices are 2-3 times the price of bushmeat (Noss 1998). Similarly, a kilogram of bushmeat in various towns near the Ngotto forest in CAR ranged from $0.32-0.75, whereas goat was $1.75/kg, chickens were $3.52/kg and caterpillars are relatively expensive $3.65/kg (Delvingt 1997)."

Cultural and social preferences for bushmeat:
Peres (2000) mentions that forest aborigines have a phrase for "craving for meat" and that they feel that a meal is not a meal without bushmeat or fish. Newing (2001) remarks on the fact that hunters have a "have to eat today principle".

A study carried out by Carpento et al. (2000) of Banyamurezi hunters in central-western Tanzania revealed that 27.54% of all bushmeat was that of carnivores and primates. These animals were culled because they were killing domestic animals and destroying crop. It was speculated that the meat of these animals was not consumed because of the presence of taboos or a dislike for the taste of this meat. Another study into the hunting and ecology in Zaire by Wilkie et al. (1998) informs us that bushmeat is consumed as a source of protein even though local people may own domestic animals. The domestic animals are not killed because they are used as savings and used to pay for health care, births, marriages and deaths.

Wilkie (1999) states that many people in the Congo basin have a strong cultural preference for bushmeat and that people in Gabon buy bushmeat that is 1.6 times the price of normal domestic animal meat. Bushmeat is seen in some social arenas as a luxury item for the elite. Bowen-Jones (2003) stated that in Nigeria bushmeat is a delicacy for rich people. Bowen-Jones proposed that purchasing and consuming bushmeat is a way of getting back to the roots (village food) and to "show-off" wealth. He also mentions the fact that although people have preferences over the type of bushmeat they consume, they will switch their preference, which is dependent on availability and price.

Why people consume bushmeat in Britain

Many of the people who used to live in countries where eating bushmeat is common practice are emigrating to Britain because of the threat of civil war and political unrest and with their migration comes their preference for bushmeat. Bowen-Jones (2003) reports that in a five week survey at Heathrow airport (2002), 200 seizures were carried out and 1.4 tonnes of bushmeat was seized from a single flight. The National Audit Office estimated that in 2003 only 1.6% of bushmeat was confiscated at customs in airports (12,000 tonnes) therefore a staggering 99.4% entered the country.

Angus Stickler a reporter for BBC Radio 4 (2004) investigated the bushmeat trade from hunting in Cameroon to its purchase in England. Stickler accompanied Principal Environmental Health Officers and police on a customs raid on a shop in Ridley Road Market, Hackney. They discovered a range of bushmeat on sale illegally ranging from pieces of antelope and gorilla to whole monkeys (all confirmed by DNA analysis). On another raid large African land snails and cow hides were found.

© MicrobiologyBytes 2007.